Abstract
Astronomers have stumbled on thousands of planets initiate air the Picture voltaic Draw1, most of which orbit stars that can finally evolve into pink giants after which into white dwarfs. All the device through the pink large half, any conclude-orbiting planets will likely be engulfed by the smartly-known particular person2, however more distant planets can continue to exist this half and stay in orbit across the white dwarf3,4. Some white dwarfs present evidence for rocky materials floating of their atmospheres5, in heat debris disks6,7,8,9 or orbiting very carefully10,11,12, which has been interpreted as the debris of rocky planets that were scattered inwards and tidally disrupted13. Recently, the invention of a gaseous debris disk with a composition same to that of ice large planets14 demonstrated that large planets also can bag their manner into tight orbits round white dwarfs, however it indubitably is unclear whether these planets can continue to exist the hunch. To this point, no intact planets had been detected in conclude orbits round white dwarfs. Right here we document the observation of a big planet candidate transiting the white dwarf WD 1856+534 (TIC 267574918) every 1.4 days. We noticed and modelled the periodic dimming of the white dwarf triggered by the planet candidate passing in front of the smartly-known particular person in its orbit. The planet candidate is roughly the an identical size as Jupiter and is never any bigger than 14 times as huge (with 95 per cent self belief). Other circumstances of white dwarfs with conclude brown dwarf or stellar companions are explained as the outcome of fashioned-envelope evolution, whereby the distinctive orbit is enveloped throughout the pink large half and shrinks owing to friction. In this case, alternatively, the lengthy orbital interval (when put next with diverse white dwarfs with conclude brown dwarf or stellar companions) and low mass of the planet candidate originate fashioned-envelope evolution less likely. In its attach, our findings for the WD 1856+534 system accumulated that large planets will likely be scattered into tight orbits with out being tidally disrupted, motivating the explore for smaller transiting planets round white dwarfs.
Data availability
We provide all reduced mild curves and spectra with the manuscript. The Spitzer pictures will most likely be found for bag at the Spitzer Heritage Archive (http://irsa.ipac.caltech.edu/beneficial properties/Spitzer/SHA/), and the TESS pictures and mild curves will most likely be found from the Mikulski Archive for Train Telescopes (https://archive.stsci.edu/tess/). Source recordsdata are equipped with this paper.
Code availability
Worthy of the code former to make these outcomes is publicly accessible and linked throughout the paper. We wrote custom utility to analyse the solutions peaceable in this venture. Though this code was no longer written with distribution in mind, it is accessible on-line at https://github.com/avanderburg/.
References
- 1.
Akeson, R. L. et al. The NASA Exoplanet Archive: recordsdata and instruments for exoplanet learn. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacif. 125, 989–999 (2013).
- 2.
Villaver, E. & Livio, M. The orbital evolution of gas large planets round large stars. Astrophys. J. Lett. 705, 81–85 (2009).
- 3.
Luhman, K. L., Burgasser, A. J. & Bochanski, J. J. Discovery of a candidate for the largest identified brown dwarf. Astrophys. J. Lett. 730, 9 (2011).
- 4.
Marsh, T. R. et al. The planets round NN Serpentis: aloof there. Mon. No longer. R. Astron. Soc. 437, 475–488 (2014).
- 5.
Jura, M. A tidally disrupted asteroid across the white dwarf G29–38. Astrophys. J. Lett. 584, 91–94 (2003).
- 6.
Kilic, M., von Hippel, T., Leggett, S. K. & Winget, D. E. Extra infrared radiation from the massive DAZ white dwarf GD 362: a debris disk? Astrophys. J. Lett. 632, 115–118 (2005).
- 7.
Becklin, E. E. et al. A dusty disk round GD 362, a white dwarf with a uniquely excessive photospheric steel abundance. Astrophys. J. Lett. 632, 119–122 (2005).
- 8.
Gänsicke, B. T., Marsh, T. R., Southworth, J. & Rebassa-Mansergas, A. A gaseous steel disk round a white dwarf. science 314, 1908 (2006).
- 9.
Wilson, T. G., Farihi, J., Gänsicke, B. T. & Swan, A. The objective frequency of planetary signatures round single and binary white dwarfs using Spitzer and Hubble. Mon. No longer. R. Astron. Soc. 487, 133–146 (2019).
- 10.
Vanderburg, A. et al. A disintegrating minor planet transiting a white dwarf. Nature 526, 546–549 (2015).
- 11.
Manser, C. J. et al. A planetesimal orbiting inner the debris disc round a white dwarf smartly-known particular person. science 364, 66–69 (2019).
- 12.
Vanderbosch, Z. et al. A white dwarf with transiting circumstellar materials a long way initiate air the Roche restrict. Astrophys. J. 897, 171 (2020).
- 13.
Debes, J. H. & Sigurdsson, S. Are there unstable planetary techniques round white dwarfs? Astrophys. J. 572, 556–565 (2002).
- 14.
Gänsicke, B. T. et al. Accretion of a big planet onto a white dwarf smartly-known particular person. Nature 576, 61–64 (2019).
- 15.
McCook, G. P. & Sion, E. M. A catalog of spectroscopically identified white dwarfs. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 121, 1–130 (1999).
- 16.
Nelson, L., Schwab, J., Ristic, M. & Rappaport, S. Minimal orbital interval of precataclysmic variables. Astrophys. J. 866, 88 (2018).
- 17.
Marley, M., Saumon, D., Morley, C. & Fortney, J. Sonora 2018: Cloud-free, Picture voltaic Composition, Picture voltaic C/O Substellar Atmosphere Models and Spectra (2018); https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1309035
- 18.
Spiegel, D. S., Burrows, A. & Milsom, J. A. The deuterium-burning mass restrict for brown dwarfs and big planets. Astrophys. J. 727, 57 (2011).
- 19.
Casewell, S. L. et al. WD0837+185: the formation and evolution of an coarse mass-ratio white-dwarf–brown-dwarf binary in Praesepe. Astrophys. J. Lett. 759, 34 (2012).
- 20.
Littlefair, S. P. et al. The substellar accomplice within the eclipsing white dwarf binary SDSS J141126.20+200911.1. Mon. No longer. R. Astron. Soc. 445, 2106–2115 (2014).
- 21.
Rappaport, S. et al. WD 1202-024: the shortest-interval pre-cataclysmic variable. Mon. No longer. R. Astron. Soc. 471, 948–961 (2017).
- 22.
Parsons, S. G. et al. Two white dwarfs in ultrashort binaries with accumulated, eclipsing, likely sub-stellar companions detected by K2. Mon. No longer. R. Astron. Soc. 471, 976–986 (2017).
- 23.
Paczynski, B. General-envelope binaries. In World Tall Union Symp. No. 73: Structure and Evolution of Shut Binary Techniques (eds Eggleton, P., Mitton, S. & Whelan, J.) 75–80 (Reidel, 1976).
- 24.
Xu, X.-J. & Li, X.-D. On the binding energy parameter λ of fashioned-envelope evolution. Astrophys. J. 716, 114–121 (2010).
- 25.
Veras, D. & Gänsicke, B. T. Detectable conclude-in planets round white dwarfs through late unpacking. Mon. No longer. R. Astron. Soc. 447, 1049–1058 (2015).
- 26.
Goldreich, P. & Soter, S. Q within the Picture voltaic Draw. Icarus 5, 375–389 (1966).
- 27.
Veras, D. & Fuller, J. Tidal circularization of gaseous planets orbiting white dwarfs. Mon. No longer. R. Astron. Soc. 489, 2941–2953 (2019).
- 28.
Kreidberg, L. et al. Clouds within the atmosphere of the massive-Earth exoplanet GJ1214b. Nature 505, 69–72 (2014).
- 29.
Agol, E. Transit surveys for Earths within the habitable zones of white dwarfs. Astrophys. J. Lett. 731, 31 (2011).
- 30.
Boss, A. P. et al. Working group on extrasolar planets. Proc. World Tall Union A 26A, 183–186 (2005).
- 31.
Ricker, G. R. et al. Transiting Exoplanet Gaze Satellite tv for pc (TESS). J. Astron. Telesc. Instrum. Syst. 1, 014003 (2014).
- 32.
Dufour, P. et al. The Montreal White Dwarf Database: a instrument for the group. In 20th European White Dwarf Workshop (EuroWD16) (eds Tremblay, P.-E., Gaensicke, B. & Marsh, T.) 3–8 (2017).
- 33.
Stassun. K. G. et al. The TESS Input Catalog and candidate aim checklist. Astron. J. 156, 102 (2018); correction 156, 183 (2018).
- 34.
Gould, A. & Morgan, C. W. Transit aim change using reduced best motions. Astrophys. J. 585, 1056–1061 (2003).
- 35.
Altmann, M., Roeser, S., Demleitner, M., Bastian, U. & Schilbach, E. Hot Stuff for One Yr (HSOY). A 583 million smartly-known particular person best motion catalogue derived from Gaia DR1 and PPMXL. Astron. Astrophys. 600, L4 (2017).
- 36.
Gentile Fusillo, N. P. et al. A Gaia Data Launch 2 catalogue of white dwarfs and a comparison with SDSS. Mon. No longer. R. Astron. Soc. 482, 4570–4591 (2019).
- 37.
Jenkins, J. M. Overview of the TESS science Pipeline. In AAS/Division for Outrageous Picture voltaic Techniques III (chairs Mayor, M. & Rasio, F.) 106.05 (2015).
- 38.
Jenkins, J. M. et al. The TESS science processing operations center. In Proc. SPIE 9913 Tool and Cyberinfrastructure for Astronomy IV (eds Chiozzi, G. & Guzman, J. C.) 99133E (2016).
- 39.
Smith, J. C. et al. Kepler presearch recordsdata conditioning II—a Bayesian blueprint to systematic error correction. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacif. 124, 1000–1014 (2012).
- 40.
Stumpe, M. C. et al. Multiscale systematic error correction through wavelet-based mostly fully mostly bandsplitting in Kepler recordsdata. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacif. 126, 100 (2014).
- 41.
Jenkins, J. M. The impact of photograph voltaic-treasure variability on the detectability of transiting terrestrial planets. Astrophys. J. 575, 493–505 (2002).
- 42.
Evans, D. F. Proof for unresolved exoplanet-web hosting binaries in Gaia DR2. Res. Notes AAS 2, 20 (2018).
- 43.
Rizzuto, A. C. et al. Zodiacal Exoplanets in Time (ZEIT). VIII. A two-planet system in Praesepe from K2 Marketing campaign 16. Astron. J. 156, 195 (2018).
- 44.
Lindegren, L. Re-normalising the Astrometric Chi-Sq. in Gaia DR2 Gaia Technical Impress No. GAIA-C3-TN-LU-LL-124-01 (Gaia DPAC, 2018).
- 45.
Abell, G. O. Globular clusters and planetary nebulae stumbled on on the National Geographic Society–Palomar Observatory Sky Gaze. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacif. 67, 258–261 (1955).
- 46.
Rappaport, S. et al. Drifting asteroid fragments round WD 1145+017. Mon. No longer. R. Astron. Soc. 458, 3904–3917 (2016).
- 47.
Narita, N. et al. MuSCAT2: four-colour simultaneous digicam for the 1.52-m Telescopio Carlos Sánchez. J. Astron. Telesc. Instrum. Syst. 5, 015001 (2019).
- 48.
Schmidt, G. D., Weymann, R. J. & Foltz, C. B. A. Average-resolution, excessive-throughput CCD channel for the MMT Spectrograph. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacif. 101, 713 (1989).
- 49.
Miller, J. S. & Stone, R. P. The Kast Double Spectograph Lick Observatory Technical File 66 (College of California Observatories/Lick Observatory, 1994).
- 50.
Chonis, T. S., Hill, G. J., Lee, H., Tuttle, S. E. & Vattiat, B. L. LRS2: the unusual facility low resolution integral field spectrograph for the Ardour–Eberly telescope. In Proc. SPIE Tall Telescopes and Instrumentation Vol. 9147 (eds Ramsay, S. K., McLean, I. S. & Takami, H.) 91470A (SPIE, 2014).
- 51.
Zeimann, G. Panacea provide code (accessed 24 June 2020); https://github.com/grzeimann/Panacea (2019).
- 52.
Elias, J. H. et al. Accumulate of the Gemini reach-infrared spectrograph. In Proc. Ground-based mostly fully mostly and Airborne Instrumentation for Astronomy (eds McLean, I. S. & Iye, M.) 62694C (2006).
- 53.
Mason, R. E. et al. The nuclear reach-infrared spectral properties of inner reach galaxies. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 217, 13 (2015).
- 54.
Telting, J. H. et al. FIES: the excessive-resolution Fiber-fed Echelle Spectrograph at the Nordic Optical telescope. Astron. Nachr. 335, 41 (2014).
- 55.
Stempels, E. & Telting, J. FIEStool: computerized recordsdata reduction for FIber-fed Echelle Spectrograph (FIES) Astrophysics Source Code Library http://ascl.bag/1708.009 (2017).
- 56.
Fűrész, G. Accumulate and Utility of Excessive Resolution and Multiobject Spectrographs: Dynamical Analysis of Launch Clusters. PhD thesis, Univ. Szeged (2008).
- 57.
Buchhave, L. A. et al. An abundance of runt exoplanets round stars with a huge vary of metallicities. Nature 486, 375–377 (2012).
- 58.
Stefanik, R. P., Latham, D. W. & Torres, G. Radial-tempo typical stars. In IAU Colloquium 170: Exact Stellar Radial Velocities Vol. 185 (eds Hearnshaw, J. B. & Scarfe, C. D.) 354–366 (1999).
- 59.
Lépine, S. et al. A spectroscopic catalog of the brightest (J < 9) M dwarfs in the northern sky. Astron. J. 145, 102 (2013).
- 60.
Cubillos, P. et al. WASP-8b: characterization of a cool and eccentric exoplanet with Spitzer. Astrophys. J. 768, 42 (2013).
- 61.
Xu, S. & Jura, M. Spitzer observations of white dwarfs: the missing planetary debris around DZ stars. Astrophys. J. 745, 88 (2012).
- 62.
Xu, S. et al. Infrared variability of two dusty white dwarfs. Astrophys. J. 866, 108 (2018).
- 63.
Blouin, S., Dufour, P., Thibeault, C. & Allard, N. F. A new generation of cool white dwarf atmosphere models. IV. Revisiting the spectral evolution of cool white dwarfs. Astrophys. J. 878, 63 (2019).
- 64.
Blouin, S., Dufour, P. & Allard, N. F. A new generation of cool white dwarf atmosphere models. I. Theoretical framework and applications to DZ stars. Astrophys. J. 863, 184 (2018).
- 65.
Kowalski, P. M. Infrared absorption of dense helium and its importance in the atmospheres of cool white dwarfs. Astron. Astrophys. 566, L8 (2014).
- 66.
Stassun, K. G., Corsaro, E., Pepper, J. A. & Gaudi, B. S. Empirical accurate masses and radii of single stars with TESS and Gaia. Astron. J. 155, 22 (2018).
- 67.
Eggleton, P. Evolutionary Processes in Binary and Multiple Stars (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2006).
- 68.
Zapolsky, H. S. & Salpeter, E. E. The mass–radius relation for cold spheres of low mass. Astrophys. J. 158, 809 (1969).
- 69.
Mestel, L. On the theory of white dwarf stars. I. The energy sources of white dwarfs. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 112, 583 (1952).
- 70.
van Horn, H. M. Cooling of white dwarfs. In International Astronomical Union Symp. No. 42: White Dwarfs (ed. Luyten, W. J.) 97–115 (Reidel, 1971).
- 71.
Mann, A. W., Feiden, G. A., Gaidos, E., Boyajian, T. & von Braun, K. How to constrain your M dwarf: measuring effective temperature, bolometric luminosity, mass, and radius. Astrophys. J. 804, 64 (2015); erratum 819, 87 (2016).
- 72.
Mann, A. W. et al. How to constrain your M dwarf. II. The mass–luminosity–metallicity relation from 0.075 to 0.70 Solar masses. Astrophys. J. 871, 63 (2019).
- 73.
Stassun, K. G. et al. The revised TESS input catalog and candidate target list. Astron. J. 158, 138 (2019).
- 74.
Pearce, L. A. Linear Orbits for the Impatient (accessed 24 June 2020); https://github.com/logan-pearce/LOFTI (2019).
- 75.
Pearce, L. A. et al. Orbital parameter determination for wide stellar binary systems in the age of Gaia. Astrophys. J. 894, 115 (2020).
- 76.
Blunt, S. et al. Orbits for the Impatient: a Bayesian rejection-sampling method for quickly fitting the orbits of long-period exoplanets. Astron. J. 153, 229 (2017).
- 77.
Eastman, J., Siverd, R. & Gaudi, B. S. Achieving better than 1 minute accuracy in the heliocentric and barycentric Julian dates. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacif. 122, 935 (2010).
- 78.
Mandel, K. & Agol, E. Analytic light curves for planetary transit searches. Astrophys. J. Lett. 580, 171–175 (2002).
- 79.
Eastman, J., Gaudi, B. S. & Agol, E. EXOFAST: a fast exoplanetary fitting suite in IDL. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacif. 125, 83–112 (2013).
- 80.
Gianninas, A., Strickland, B. D., Kilic, M. & Bergeron, P. Limb-darkening coefficients for eclipsing white dwarfs. Astrophys. J. 766, 3 (2013).
- 81.
Claret, A. et al. Gravity and limb-darkening coefficients for compact stars: DA, DB, and DBA eclipsing white dwarfs. Astron. Astrophys. 634, A93 (2020).
- 82.
Claret, A. & Bloemen, S. Gravity and limb-darkening coefficients for the Kepler, CoRoT, Spitzer, uvby, UBVRIJHK, and Sloan photometric systems. Astron. Astrophys. 529, A75 (2011).
- 83.
Seager, S. & Mallén-Ornelas, G. A unique solution of planet and star parameters from an extrasolar planet transit light curve. Astrophys. J. 585, 1038–1055 (2003).
- 84.
Lucy, L. B. & Sweeney, M. A. Spectroscopic binaries with circular orbits. Astron. J. 76, 544–556 (1971).
- 85.
Goodman, J. & Weare, J. Ensemble samplers with affine invariance. Comm. App. Math. Comp. Sci. 5, 65–80 (2010).
- 86.
Kopal, Z. Close Binary Systems (Chapman & Hall, 1959).
- 87.
Kipping, D. M. Efficient, uninformative sampling of limb darkening coefficients for two-parameter laws. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 435, 2152–2160 (2013).
- 88.
Saumon, D. & Marley, M. S. The evolution of L and T dwarfs in color–magnitude diagrams. Astrophys. J. 689, 1327–1344 (2008).
- 89.
Nelson, L. A., Rappaport, S. A. & Joss, P. C. On the nature of the companion to Van Biesbroeck 8. Nature 316, 42–44 (1985).
- 90.
Chabrier, G., Johansen, A., Janson, M. & Rafikov, R. Giant planet and brown dwarf formation. In Protostars and Planets VI (eds Beuther, H. et al.) 619–642 (Univ. Arizona Press, 2014).
- 91.
Bowler, B. P., Blunt, S. C. & Nielsen, E. L. Population-level eccentricity distributions of imaged exoplanets and brown dwarf companions: dynamical evidence for distinct formation channels. Astron. J. 159, 63 (2020).
- 92.
Phillips, M. W. et al. A new set of atmosphere and evolution models for cool T–Y brown dwarfs and giant exoplanets. Astron. Astrophys. 637, A38 (2020).
- 93.
Miles, B. E. et al. Observations of disequilibrium CO chemistry in the coldest brown dwarfs. Astron. J. 160, 63 (2020).
- 94.
Morley, C. V. et al. An L band spectrum of the coldest brown dwarf. Astrophys. J. 858, 97 (2018).
- 95.
Morley, C. V. et al. Water clouds in Y dwarfs and exoplanets. Astrophys. J. 787, 78 (2014).
- 96.
Shappee, B. J. et al. The man behind the curtain: X-rays drive the UV through NIR variability in the 2013 active galactic nucleus outburst in NGC 2617. Astrophys. J. 788, 48 (2014).
- 97.
Kochanek, C. S. et al. The All-Sky Automated Survey for Supernovae (ASAS-SN) Light Curve Server v1.0. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacif. 129, 104502 (2017).
- 98.
Butters, O. W. et al. The first WASP public data release. Astron. Astrophys. 520, L10 (2010).
- 99.
Gizis, J. E. M-subdwarfs: spectroscopic classification and the metallicity scale. Astron. J. 113, 806–822 (1997).
- 100.
Lépine, S., Rich, R. M. & Shara, M. M. Revised metallicity classes for low-mass stars: dwarfs (dM), subdwarfs (sdM), extreme subdwarfs (esdM), and ultrasubdwarfs (usdM). Astrophys. J. 669, 1235–1247 (2007).
- 101.
Mann, A. W., Brewer, J. M., Gaidos, E., Lépine, S. & Hilton, E. J. Prospecting in late-type dwarfs: a calibration of infrared and visible spectroscopic metallicities of late K and M dwarfs spanning 1.5 dex. Astron. J. 145, 52 (2013).
- 102.
Newton, E. R. et al. The Hα emission of nearby M dwarfs and its relation to stellar rotation. Astrophys. J. 834, 85 (2017).
- 103.
West, A. A. et al. The Sloan Digital Sky Survey data release 7 spectroscopic M dwarf catalog. I. Data. Astron. J. 141, 97 (2011).
- 104.
Coşkunoğlu, B. et al. Local stellar kinematics from RAVE data—I. Local standard of rest. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 412, 1237–1245 (2011).
- 105.
Bensby, T., Feltzing, S. & Oey, M. S. Exploring the Milky Way stellar disk. A detailed elemental abundance study of 714 F and G dwarf stars in the solar neighbourhood. Astron. Astrophys. 562, A71 (2014).
- 106.
Carrillo, A., Hawkins, K., Bowler, B. P., Cochran, W. & Vanderburg, A. Know thy star, know thy planet: chemo-kinematically characterizing TESS targets. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 491, 4365–4381 (2020).
- 107.
Kilic, M. et al. The ages of the thin disk, thick disk, and the halo from nearby white dwarfs. Astrophys. J. 837, 162 (2017).
- 108.
Haywood, M., Di Matteo, P., Lehnert, M. D., Katz, D. & Gómez, A. The age structure of stellar populations in the solar vicinity. Clues of a two-phase formation history of the Milky Way disk. Astron. Astrophys. 560, A109 (2013).
- 109.
Xiang, M. et al. The ages and masses of a million Galactic-disk main-sequence turnoff and subgiant stars from the LAMOST Galactic Spectroscopic Surveys. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 232, 2 (2017).
- 110.
Sharma, S. et al. The K2-HERMES Survey: age and metallicity of the thick disc. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 490, 5335–5352 (2019).
- 111.
Webbink, R. F. Double white dwarfs as progenitors of R Coronae Borealis stars and type I supernovae. Astrophys. J. 277, 355–360 (1984).
- 112.
Pfahl, E., Rappaport, S. & Podsiadlowski, P. The Galactic population of low- and intermediate-mass X-ray binaries. Astrophys. J. 597, 1036–1048 (2003).
- 113.
Zorotovic, M., Schreiber, M. R., Gänsicke, B. T. & Nebot Gómez-Morán, A. Post-common-envelope binaries from SDSS. IX: Constraining the common-envelope efficiency. Astron. Astrophys. 520, A86 (2010).
- 114.
De Marco, O. et al. On the α formalism for the common envelope interaction. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 411, 2277–2292 (2011).
- 115.
Camacho, J. et al. Monte Carlo simulations of post-common-envelope white dwarf + main sequence binaries: comparison with the SDSS DR7 observed sample. Astron. Astrophys. 566, A86 (2014).
- 116.
Taam, R. E., Bodenheimer, P. & Ostriker, J. P. Double core evolution. I. A 16 M
☉ star with a 1 M
☉ neutron-star companion. Astrophys. J. 222, 269–280 (1978). - 117.
Taam, R. E. & Bodenheimer, P. The common envelope evolution of massive stars. In X-Ray Binaries and Recycled Pulsars: Proc. NATO Advanced Research Workshop on X-Ray Binaries and the Formation of Binary and Millisecond Radio Pulsars (eds van den Heuvel, E. P. & Rappaport, S. A.) 281–291 (Springer Dordrecht, 1992).
- 118.
Tauris, T. M. & Dewi, J. D. M. On the binding energy parameter of common envelope evolution. Dependency on the definition of the stellar core boundary during spiral-in. Astron. Astrophys. 369, 170–173 (2001).
- 119.
Rappaport, S. et al. Discovery of two new thermally bloated low-mass white dwarfs among the Kepler binaries. Astrophys. J. 803, 82 (2015).
- 120.
Choi, J. et al. Mesa Isochrones and Stellar Tracks (MIST). I. Solar-scaled models. Astrophys. J. 823, 102 (2016).
- 121.
Rappaport, S., Podsiadlowski, P., Joss, P. C., Di Stefano, R. & Han, Z. The relation between white dwarf mass and orbital period in wide binary radio pulsars. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 273, 731–741 (1995).
- 122.
Kalomeni, B. et al. Evolution of cataclysmic variables and related binaries containing a white dwarf. Astrophys. J. 833, 83 (2016).
- 123.
Passy, J.-C., Mac Low, M.-M. & De Marco, O. On the survival of brown dwarfs and planets engulfed by their giant host star. Astrophys. J. Lett. 759, 30 (2012).
- 124.
Bear, E. & Soker, N. Evaporation of Jupiter-like planets orbiting extreme horizontal branch stars. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 414, 1788–1792 (2011).
- 125.
Schreiber, M. R., Gänsicke, B. T., Toloza, O., Hernandez, M.-S. & Lagos, F. Cold giant planets evaporated by hot white dwarfs. Astrophys. J. 887, L4 (2019).
- 126.
Kozai, Y. Secular perturbations of asteroids with high inclination and eccentricity. Astron. J. 67, 591–598 (1962).
- 127.
Lidov, M. L. The evolution of orbits of artificial satellites of planets under the action of gravitational perturbations of external bodies. Planet. Space Sci. 9, 719–759 (1962).
- 128.
Stephan, A. P., Naoz, S. & Zuckerman, B. Throwing icebergs at white dwarfs. Astrophys. J. Lett. 844, 16 (2017).
- 129.
Chambers, J. E. A hybrid symplectic integrator that permits close encounters between massive bodies. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 304, 793–799 (1999).
- 130.
Veras, D. & Fuller, J. The dynamical history of the evaporating or disrupted ice giant planet around white dwarf WD J0914+1914. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 492, 6059–6066 (2019).
- 131.
Lainey, V., Arlot, J.-E., Karatekin, Ö. & van Hoolst, T. Strong tidal dissipation in Io and Jupiter from astrometric observations. Nature 459, 957–959 (2009).
- 132.
Kozakis, T., Kaltenegger, L. & Hoard, D. W. UV surface environments and atmospheres of Earth-like planets orbiting white dwarfs. Astrophys. J. 862, 69 (2018).
- 133.
Bonsor, A. & Veras, D. A wide binary trigger for white dwarf pollution. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 454, 53–63 (2015).
- 134.
Chang, Y. C. A study of the orientation of the orbit-planes of 16 visual binaries having determinate inclinations. Astron. J. 40, 11–15 (1929).
- 135.
Agati, J. L. et al. Are the orbital poles of binary stars in the solar neighbourhood anisotropically distributed? Astron. Astrophys. 574, A6 (2015).
- 136.
Heintz, W. D. A statistical study of binary stars. J. Roy. Astron. Soc. Can. 63, 275 (1969).
- 137.
Adams, F. C. & Bloch, A. M. Evolution of planetary orbits with stellar mass loss and tidal dissipation. Astrophys. J. 777, L30 (2013).
- 138.
Rasio, F. A., Tout, C. A., Lubow, S. H. & Livio, M. Tidal decay of close planetary orbits. Astrophys. J. 470, 1187 (1996).
- 139.
Payne, M. J., Veras, D., Holman, M. J. & Gänsicke, B. T. Liberating exomoons in white dwarf planetary systems. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 457, 217–231 (2016).
- 140.
Bromley, B. C., Kenyon, S. J., Geller, M. J. & Brown, W. R. Binary disruption by massive black holes: hypervelocity stars, S stars, and tidal disruption events. Astrophys. J. 749, L42 (2012).
- 141.
Faber, J. A., Rasio, F. A. & Willems, B. Tidal interactions and disruptions of giant planets on highly eccentric orbits. Icarus 175, 248–262 (2005).
- 142.
Mainetti, D. et al. The fine line between total and partial tidal disruption events. Astron. Astrophys. 600, A124 (2017).
- 143.
Kreidberg, L. Exoplanet atmosphere measurements from transmission spectroscopy and other planet star combined light observations. In Handbook of Exoplanets (eds Deeg, H. J. & Belmonte, J. A.) 2083–2105 (2018).
- 144.
Stevenson, K. B. Quantifying and predicting the presence of clouds in exoplanet atmospheres. Astrophys. J. 817, L16 (2016).
- 145.
Loeb, A. & Gaudi, B. S. Periodic flux variability of stars due to the reflex Doppler effect induced by planetary companions. Astrophys. J. Lett. 588, 117–120 (2003).
- 146.
van Kerkwijk, M. H. et al. Observations of Doppler boosting in Kepler light curves. Astrophys. J. 715, 51–58 (2010).
- 147.
Rauer, H. et al. The PLATO 2.0 mission. Exp. Astron. 38, 249–330 (2014).
- 148.
Chambers, K. C. et al. The Pan-STARRS1 surveys. Preprint at: https://www.arxiv.org/abs/1612.05560 (2016).
- 149.
Skrutskie, M. F. et al. The Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS). Astron. J. 131, 1163–1183 (2006).
- 150.
Cutri, R. M. et al. VizieR Online Data Catalog: AllWISE Data Release (Cutri+ 2013). VizieR Online Data Catalog II/328 (accessed 5 October 2019); http://vizier.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/VizieR?-source=II/328
Acknowledgements
We thank S. Lepine for providing the archival spectrum of G 229-20 A, and P. Berlind and J. Irwin for collecting and extracting velocities from the TRES spectrum. We thank B.-O. Demory for comments on the manuscript, and F. Rasio, D. Veras, P. Gao, B. Kaiser, W. Torres, J. Irwin, J. J. Hermes, J. Eastman, A. Shporer and K. Hawkins for conversations. A.V.’s work was performed under contract with the California Institute of Technology (Caltech)/Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) funded by NASA through the Sagan Fellowship Program executed by the NASA Exoplanet science Institute. I.J.M.C. acknowledges support from the NSF through grant AST-1824644, and from NASA through Caltech/JPL grant RSA-1610091. T.D. acknowledges support from MIT’s Kavli Institute as a Kavli postdoctoral fellow. D.D. acknowledges support from NASA through Caltech/JPL grant RSA-1006130 and through the TESS Guest Investigator programme, grant 80NSSC19K1727. S.B. acknowledges support from the Laboratory Directed Research and Development programme of Los Alamos National Laboratory under project number 20190624PRD2. C.M. and B.Z. acknowledge support from NSF grants SPG-1826583 and SPG-1826550. A.V. was a NASA Sagan Fellow; J.C.B. is a 51 Pegasi b Fellow; L.A.P. is an NSF Graduate Research Fellow; A.C. is a Large Synoptic Survey telescope Corporation Data science Fellow; T.D. is a Kavli Fellow; and C.X.H. is a Juan Carlos Torres Fellow. Resources supporting this work were provided by the NASA High-End Computing (HEC) programme through the NASA Advanced Supercomputing (NAS) Division at Ames Research Center for the production of the SPOC data products. This work is partially based on observations made with the Nordic Optical telescope, operated by the Nordic Optical telescope Scientific Association at the Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos, La Palma, Spain, of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias. This article is partly based on observations made with the MuSCAT2 instrument, developed by ABC, at Telescopio Carlos Sánchez operated on the island of Tenerife by the IAC in the Spanish Observatorio del Teide. This work is partly supported by JSPS KAKENHI, grant numbers JP17H04574, JP18H01265 and JP18H05439, and JST PRESTO grant number JPMJPR1775. This research has made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System, the NASA Exoplanet Archive, which is operated by the California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under the Exoplanet Exploration Program, and the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France. This work is based in part on observations made with the Spitzer Space telescope, which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology under a contract with NASA. This work is partially based on observations obtained at the International Gemini Observatory, a program of NOIRLab, which is managed by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) under a cooperative agreement with the National science Foundation, on behalf of the Gemini Observatory partnership: the National science Foundation (United States), National Research Council (Canada), Agencia Nacional de Investigación y Desarrollo (Chile), Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación (Argentina), Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia, Inovações e Comunicações (Brazil), and Korea Astronomy and Space science Institute (Republic of Korea). The authors wish to recognize and acknowledge the very significant cultural role and reverence that the summit of Maunakea has always had within the Indigenous Hawaiian community. We are most fortunate to have the opportunity to conduct observations from this mountain.
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Peer review information Nature thanks Artie Hatzes, Steven Parsons and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work. Peer reviewer reports are available.
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Extended data figures and tables
Extended Data Fig. 1 Archival imaging of WD 1856.
a, From the Palomar Observatory Sky Survey on a photographic plate with a blue-sensitive emulsion. b, From the Panoramic Survey telescope and Rapid Response System (Pan-STARRS) survey in the i band. c, From the Pan-STARRS survey in the i band, zoomed out to show the co-moving M-dwarf pair (labelled G 229-20). d, Coadded TESS image from sector 14. The photometric apertures for the three sectors of TESS observations (14, 15 and 19) are shown as red-, purple- and blue-coloured outlines, respectively. The present-day location of WD 1856 is shown with a red cross in all images.
Extended Data Fig. 2 All transit observations of WD 1856.
From top to bottom, we show the light curves (arbitrarily offset for visual clarity) from TESS; data from several private telescopes in Arizona (operated by B.G. and T.G.K.) with odd and even-numbered transits shown separately; simultaneous light curves in four colours from MuSCAT2; a light curve from the GTC, and a light curve from Spitzer. The individual two-minute-cadence TESS flux measurements are shown as grey points, and the rose-coloured points are averages of the brightness in roughly 30 s in orbital phase. The TESS data have been corrected for dilution from nearby stars so that the transit depth matches that of the GTC data.
Source data
Extended Data Fig. 3 Spectral energy distribution of WD 1856. Photometric measurements from Pan-STARRS148, 2MASS149, WISE150 and Spitzer are shown as blue, orange, dark red and pink points, respectively.
The formal 1σ (standard deviation) photometric uncertainties on the Pan-STARRS, WISE, and Spitzer points are smaller than the symbol size. Four different SED models are shown as solid curves: a pure hydrogen atmosphere model (red), a 50% hydrogen, 50% helium model (blue), a pure helium model (gold), and a blackbody curve (black). None of the SED models capture all of the SED’s features, but all four yield mostly consistent effective temperatures and stellar parameters.
Extended Data Fig. 4 Spectrum of WD 1856 near the Hα line.
Our summed Hobby–Eberly/LRS2 spectrum (black connected points) is shown in comparison with three atmosphere models: a pure hydrogen model (red), a 50% hydrogen, 50% helium model (blue), and a pure helium model (gold). We disfavour a pure hydrogen atmosphere on the basis of our non-detection of an Hα feature in our LRS2 spectra, but otherwise remain uncertain about the precise composition of the envelope of WD 1856.
Extended Data Fig. 5 Posterior probability distributions of transit parameters.
This ‘corner-plot’ shows correlations between pairs of parameters in our MCMC transit fit (with circular orbits enforced) and histograms of the marginalized posterior probability distributions for each parameter. For clarity, we have plotted correlations with the inclination angle i instead of the fit parameter cosi and subtract the median time of transit (tt). The orbital inclination i, scaled semimajor axis a/R⁎, and the planet–star radius ratio Rp/R⁎ are strongly correlated, owing to the grazing transit geometry, but constrained by the prior on the stellar density. We do not include rows for the GTC and Spitzer photometric jitter terms because these are nuisance parameters that showed no correlation with the other physical parameters.
Extended Data Fig. 6 Posterior probability distributions of transit parameters when eccentric orbits are allowed.
This ‘corner-plot’ shows correlations between pairs of parameters in our MCMC transit fit (allowing eccentric orbits) and histograms of the marginalized posterior probability distributions for each parameter. This plot shows a subset of the parameters that correlate with the orbital eccentricity. For clarity, we have plotted correlations with the eccentricity e, argument of periastron w and orbital inclination i instead of the fit parameters (sqrt{e}cos ,omega ), (sqrt{e}sin ,omega ) and δ.
Extended Data Fig. 7 Hα equivalent width for G 229-20 A/B compared to other nearby M dwarfs.
The histogram shows the Hα equivalent widths for a large sample of M dwarfs with similar spectral types from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey103. G 229-20 A/B (shown as a blue arrow) has a lower than average Hα equivalent width, but falls well within the distribution of field M dwarfs.
Extended Data Fig. 8 Theoretical relationships between the star’s radius and the mass of its core.
We show MIST120 evolution tracks in the radius–core mass plane for solar composition models with masses ranging from 1M☉–2.8M☉. The RGB phase is clearly identifiable for core masses between 0.2M☉ and 0.47M☉, whereas the thermal pulses on the AGB are readily recognized at higher core masses of ≳0.5M☉. The lime-green curve is the analytic expression given by equation (8). The vertical lines for each star mark the point where the envelope has been exhausted by the AGB wind.
Extended Data Fig. 9 The minimum value of the efficiency parameter αλCE required for WD 1856 b to form via common-envelope evolution as a function of the progenitor stellar mass.
The two dashed curves show the minimum αλCE values from our analytic calculation (equation (11)) required for a 15MJ object to eject the primary star’s envelope. The purple dashed curve is taken directly from equation (11), and the brown dashed curve results if the progenitor star has lost 0.1M☉ in a stellar wind by the time of the common envelope. The three solid curves show the minimum αλCE computed directly from MIST tracks in three different situations: before the star reaches the AGB (red), before more than 30% of the star’s envelope mass has been lost (black), and at any point in the star’s evolution, regardless of the mass lost (blue). Stars in the grey region at low masses evolve too slowly for the system to have left the main sequence more than 5.85 Gyr ago and are not viable solutions. For values of αλCE > 1 (horizontal grey line), one need to invoke the inner energy of the smartly-known particular person to serve to unbind the envelope throughout the fashioned-envelope half. Earlier than mass is lost throughout the AGB half, it is complicated for WD 1856 b to eject the fashioned envelope, however it indubitably is most likely that WD 1856 b might perchance well perchance want ejected its progenitor’s envelope if the fashioned-envelope half started after the progenitor reached the AGB. We have now smoothed the decrease two curves to bewitch away some unphysical scatter that would smartly be due to the numerical artefacts within the mannequin grids.
Supplementary recordsdata
Supplementary Data
This file encompasses a comma separated price file with spectroscopic recordsdata on the M-dwarf companions.
About this article
Cite this article
Vanderburg, A., Rappaport, S.A., Xu, S. et al. A large planet candidate transiting a white dwarf.
Nature 585, 363–367 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2713-y
-
Got:
-
Licensed:
-
Printed:
-
Assert Date:
Comments
By submitting a exclaim you comply with abide by our Phrases and Neighborhood Pointers. Whereas you scrutinize something abusive or that doesn’t follow our phrases or guidelines please flag it as unfriendly.
Leave a comment
Sign in to post your comment or sign-up if you don't have any account.